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Reconstruction
 Surgery to repair cleft lip and/or cleft palate in infants can correct nursing, feeding and speech problems, frequent ear infections and physical disfigurement with dramatic aesthetic and functional results. The cleft lip procedure is usually performed at 6-12 weeks of age, while cleft palate surgery is performed between the ages of nine months and one year (after the palate has grown but before faulty speech habits are acquired). While the infant sleeps under general anesthesia, the cleft is closed with absorbable stitches. The skin is then sewn over the correction with fine sutures to minimize scarring. Speech therapy may be required for children with residual muscle problems resulting from cleft palate.
Surgery can restore function, relieve pain and improve the appearance of the hands for patients suffering from cysts, nerve conditions such as carpal tunnel syndrome, arthritis, injuries, birth defects (e.g. webbed or extra fingers) or other problems. Hand surgeons trained in microsurgery can also re-attach or reconstruct severed fingers after a trauma.
 Skin cancer refers to the abnormal, uncontrolled growth of skin cells. One in five people will develop skin cancer in their lifetime, according to the American Academy of Dermatology. Risk factors include pale skin, family history of melanoma, being over 40 years old, and regular sun exposure. Fortunately, skin cancer is almost always curable if detected and treated early.
Scar revision is performed to reduce the appearance of scars caused by injury or previous surgery. Scars are by definition permanent, but surgery can narrow, fade and otherwise reduce the appearance of severe or unattractive scarring, which is especially helpful in areas of cosmetic importance such as the face and hands.
There are many surgical methods of scar revision, only some of which may be appropriate for a particular type of scar or its location. These include surgical excision, skin grafts, flap surgery and Z-plasty (repositioning a scar so that it aligns with the face and is less noticeable). The effectiveness of scar reduction depends on a number of factors, including the nature of the injury, your body's healing mechanism, the size and depth of the wound, how much blood supplies the area and the thickness and color of your skin.
Reconstructive Breast
 The most common breast reconstruction technique combines skin expansion with implant insertion. First, the surgeon inserts a balloon expander beneath the skin and chest muscle where the reconstructed breast will be located. A saline (salt water) solution is then injected into the expander through a tiny valve beneath the skin over a few weeks or months, eventually filling it and stretching the skin. The expander may then be left in place or replaced with a permanent implant. A final procedure reconstructs the nipple and areola (dark area of skin around the nipple).
A more complicated type of implant reconstruction involves the creation of a skin flap using tissue from other parts of the body. If the flap is not large enough to serve as the new breast by itself, an implant is then inserted beneath it. Tissue for the flap consists of skin, fat and muscle from the back, abdomen or buttocks and may either be surgically removed and reattached or remain connected to its original blood supply and "tunnelled" through the body to the chest (pedicled flap). Advantages over implant insertion are a more natural look and feel for the breast and abdomen, and elimination of any risks associated with silicone implants; disadvantages are scars at the breast and donor-tissue site, and longer recovery.
 Large breasts can cause pain, improper posture, rashes, breathing problems, skeletal deformities, and low self-esteem. Breast reduction surgery is usually done to provide relief from these symptoms. Performed under general anesthesia, the two- to four-hour procedure removes fat and glandular tissue and tightens skin to produce smaller, lighter breasts that are in a healthier proportion to the rest of the body.
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